8. Anthropology and Careers

Entering into higher education is an expensive business and, in the years ahead, looks set to become more so. As the costs of education go up, so also does the pressure to find employment which combines reasonable earning power, job satisfaction and the possibility of career development. Anyone considering taking anthropology at degree level might therefore reasonably ask where paths lead after graduation: 'It's all very well doing a subject which is interesting and engaging but what can I do with it afterwards?' is a question often asked of anthropology as well as other humanities and social science degree courses. In this section we provide some general answers to this question and highlight the distinctive knowledge and skills base which develops with the study of anthropology.

There was a time when the study of anthropology was seen as a rather exotic and frivolous pursuit; scholarly but obscure and with little practical application. It was ranked alongside archaeology, classics and ancient history as one of those subjects which people learned solely in order to pass it on to the next generation of would-be teachers. Nowadays, the scope and opportunities provided by the discipline are very much broader and anthropologists crop up wherever there are people and cultures -- which is, in effect, everywhere. With the massive growth of global communications and human mobility in recent decades, anthropology has become one of the most relevant disciplines of our day. Its concern with cultures and values on the one hand, and their translation, interpretation and communication on the other, make anthropology an essential tool when responding to the complex realities of a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural world. The insights provided by a training in anthropology are relevant when it comes to understanding the subtleties involved in planning a local authority care programme for elderly people. The same skills might also be used when negotiating a safe passage for an aid convoy trying to pass between warring ethnic factions in a troubled nation-state. Both situations involve an ability to see the world from other perspectives and to understand these perspectives within a wider social, political and economic context.

Such skills are part of the 'deep' learning which a student ought to acquire from three years immersion in the ideas and concepts which constitute contemporary anthropology. The subject, as one former graduate described it, is 'a pebble in the shoe'. In her work as a Health Service Manager a knowledge of anthropology has proved a constant and challenging reminder of the importance of social and cultural systems in delivering effective health care. Another graduate, who worked for a time as a nurse in a large hospital, noted how an appreciation of different cultures and religions was particularly valuable in understanding problems involved in providing food and physical assistance to people from other parts of the world.

Important as such 'deep' learning is, it is not all that an anthropology degree has to offer. Anthropology constantly requires students to perceive abstract ideas in the light of everyday practicalities. Standard texts are employed, but undergraduates are also encouraged to use initiative in finding new material relevant to a particular topic. In addition, conceptual skills are increasingly complemented by practical forms of training which are directly relevant to a rapidly changing world of work. Key areas in this regard include:

Applied work: There is an increasing recognition that knowledge must be linked to its application in real-life situations if it is to have value beyond the period of undergraduate study. Many anthropology departments have addressed this issue by incorporating applied anthropology into their programmes. Specially designed applied anthropology courses spell out the practical links between anthropology and fields such as development, agriculture, health and social work. Alternatively, the applied links can be made in rather more indirect ways and take the form of problems and exercises which require students to apply their knowledge to situations and scenarios usually taken from their own culture and experience.

Group work: A factor which figures high up on the wish-list of most employers is the ability of recruits to work together with others in challenging situations. To this end a few anthropology degrees incorporate group projects and group assessments. Collective activities introduce an entirely different ethos into the learning process and require students to put into practice many of the ideas which they might otherwise encounter only at a theoretical level in their degree. Collaborating on a small research project -- planning, gathering information, troubleshooting, analysing data and presenting results -- is an excellent simulation of the kinds of work-setting in which graduates are likely to find themselves.

Computing and numeracy skills: There are few professions which have not been touched by the revolution in information technology and students lacking computer skills will face a serious impediment to employment. Most anthropology departments now incorporate some IT training into their degree programmes (see chapter 5) and expect written work, such as essays, dissertations and reports, to be word-processed with presentation to a high standard. Closely linked with computer skills is the ability to create and analyse basic data sets using statistical software packages. Again, many courses seek to incorporate these skills into their degree programmes by creating simulations of real problems.

Research techniques: It is perhaps somewhat surprising that, in a discipline that places such emphasis on fieldwork, the teaching of research techniques has in the past been virtually absent from undergraduate curricula. Fieldwork, it seemed, could only be undertaken by those formally initiated into the discipline through their doctoral (PhD) research. Nowadays, some departments run courses in research methods which require undergraduates to conduct small research projects and assignments in which they will practise a range of research methods. These might include participant-observation, interviewing, survey research and observational studies.

The kinds of knowledge and skills we have identified in the previous section prepare graduates for a range of occupational pathways, some of which involve the specific application of anthropology and others in which the application is more general but nonetheless of great significance.

There are a number of jobs in which a detailed knowledge of a particular area of anthropology is essential. One of the main occupational outlets in this regard is in field research. Knowledge of specific regions, communities, ethnic groups or cultures, gained at an undergraduate level, will open up access to a variety of research-based and research-related jobs. Career possibilities exist for those with specialist anthropological knowledge in numerous government departments such as the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Similarly, the field of development provides a number of research opportunities. Researchers with specialist anthropological knowledge might find research-related employment in government organisations such as the Department for International Development or in Non-Government Organisations [NGOs] such as Action Aid, Red Cross and Oxfam, or even in international organisations such as the World Bank or the United Nations. Each of these work-places requires people with good knowledge of their particular field in order to ensure that strategy and policy are informed by accurate, well-researched information.

The other main area in which anthropological knowledge can be applied directly is in the field of education. As will be clear from earlier chapters, anthropology is taught in a wide range of institutional settings including further education colleges and universities, and even a few schools. Whatever the setting, it is likely that some postgraduate experience or training will be a necessary requirement, for instance in the form of a teaching certificate as is the case for school or FE college teaching. For university teaching the requirement generally takes the form of an extended period of research activity leading to a PhD.

Only a minority of anthropology graduates will expect to apply their knowledge directly, in the contexts outlined above. By far the majority of anthropology graduates will engage in the process of linking their knowledge and skills with jobs which do not appear, at least on the face of it, to have much to do with the academic side of the discipline. Making such links is a creative and imaginative process which will require graduates to undertake their own research into jobs advertised. 

The occupational areas listed below will all assume a high standard of general literacy and numeracy. The factors we have identified here are the specific things which we would expect an anthropology graduate to be able to bring to the job.

Social work: Contemporary social work recognises the fact that the clients it serves are drawn from a variety of social, ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Being an effective social worker is closely linked to an ability to recognise these differences and to support and care for people in ways which are consistent with their own values, life-style and expectations. This is why major themes in social work training involve anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive practices in relation to age, gender and ethnic background. A graduate anthropologist will be able to bring into play important lessons about the meaning, significance and expression of these crucial differences.

Media: We are living in the midst of an information revolution. Never before have we had access to so much information from remote sources. This information, whether delivered on TV, in newspapers and magazines or over the radio is dependent on a massive industry. Most jobs in the media sector are looking for people with flexibility, an enquiring mind, an eye for detail and good presentation skills. Immersion in the ways and understandings of another culture will furnish a graduate anthropologist with these kind of skills and characteristics.

Education (schools and colleges): As suggested above, there are many educational contexts in which anthropology is taught as a subject in its own right. However, there are even more situations in which an anthropological knowledge is of value, albeit indirectly. For example, aspects of anthropology feature as integral components of courses in human geography, human biology and sociology and are thus to be found in schools from junior levels onward. Looking at some rather more novel contexts of application, one might find anthropologists playing a significant role in courses dealing with cultural studies, health education or community work, or teaching on 'recreational' courses eg 'Anthropology for Pensioners'.

Business: As the worlds of business and commerce become ever more international, so the demand increases for people with the skills to work across the interface of several different cultures. Anthropological expertise finds a ready expression in what are known as 'inter-cultural businesses'. People trained in the discipline may prepare others for work overseas or may themselves work on overseas projects. The skills of the anthropologist, however, are not confined to work across business cultures but also figure within particular firms. For example, an ability to see situations holistically and systematically can be used in solving problems which disrupt or impair the effective running of an organisation.

Museums: There was a time when museums were places where people went to watch ancient objects gather dust. Increasingly, however, museums are bringing together information technology and imaginative display methods to create new and important educational and leisure opportunities. Anthropologists can bring to this process an awareness of the social and cultural settings in which artefacts were made as well as insights into cognition, classification and communication essential to effective presentation.

Tourism: In global terms, tourism is rapidly becoming one of the biggest industries in the history of humanity. The physical movements of people which modern tourism entails and the associated expenditure and consumption of resources are truly colossal. Anthropologists have made an important contribution to understanding the impacts of tourism, especially where there are serious consequences for local cultures and communities. They have also been able to advise on how tourism can be developed in ways that are sensitive to host peoples.

Town and Country Planning: The environments in which we live are not the product of natural processes but are largely a consequence of decisions taken by central and local government over many years. Design of the spaces and places in which we live, be they urban or rural, has emerged out of an inter-play of various interests. These will include: what local people want, what the law will allow, what the business community requires, what local labour markets can deliver and, finally, what the physical environment will sustain. Architects and planners with an anthropological awareness will be in an ideal position to anticipate the impact of new and changing living arrangements upon those most affected. They will also be tuned to the complex conflicts of interest which underpin any form of large-scale development.

Personnel management: Organisations have structures made up of rules and roles. However, it is the people within them who render them effective. In large companies, problems encountered by employees in their personal lives or in the workplace often come to the attention of personnel departments. Personnel officers, or Human Resource Managers as they are increasingly called, are expected to appreciate how people tick and how they interact in collectivities. In this regard, understanding the small-group culture of the workplace is not that different from understanding the way that a small-scale society operates. Anthropological awareness of social and cultural processes provides an ideal foundation for responding to the problems people encounter in offices, factories and other commercial enterprises.

Medicine and nursing: An understanding of different cultural attitudes towards appropriate male and female behaviour, treatment of the body, food taboos, and so on is invaluable for professional medical workers. This is particularly the case given that health care workers increasingly have to deal with people's long term chronic conditions, such as AIDS, the emphasis shifts from simple curative treatments to negotiation and management of care.

Research: In most of the fields identified above there is a perpetual need for up-to date research and information. Without good data, effective planning and decision-making cannot take place and an organisation will not be able to operate effectively. To this end, there are departments located within large employers, such as local government and the Civil Service, which function solely to generate research data. Similarly, there are private organisations such as those offering independent market research which may be commissioned to collect data on behalf of another group. Anthropologists' contributions in these fields are likely to include expertise in the area of qualitative methods. For example, the ability to throw light on local understandings of large-scale processes such as the implementation of a particular law or social policy change may prove invaluable.

Given that so many people now become graduates, employers are inevitably looking for something more than a degree when they consider applicants. This something 'extra' may take the form of a specialist post-graduate qualification such as a Master of Arts or a Diploma in a vocational subject. However, 'value-added' need not always take the form of an extra period of study. A very important step in developing a career pathway is participation in voluntary work whilst an undergraduate. Such a strategy has a number of advantages. Voluntary work in some aspect of your intended career gives you first-hand experience and knowledge of the job and thus enables you to target future applications far more effectively. To a future employer, voluntary work also indicates commitment to a vocation or profession rather than one prompted by a chance reading of a job advert. Finally, participation in voluntary activities places a person in the social networks through which all-important information about changing jobs and job prospects is passed.

Among anthropology's better-known graduates are to be numbered Prince Charles, the politician Mo Mowlam and the journalist Anna Ford. Below some anthropology graduates have provided us with brief accounts of their career development:

Caroline Boville
Health Service Manager, Cardiff

Anthropology introduced a new way of thinking about life in the past, present and future, as well as novel perspectives on both the people around me and cultures I will never experience. Studying allowed me to indulge in my personal interests yet my thoughts and ideas were challenged and stretched by my peers and tutors. As my knowledge increased so did my confidence, giving me a belief in myself to seek further challenges.

Both social and development anthropology encouraged students to feel they were advocates for those who could not always make their opinions heard in powerful forums, and to feel that they could become mediators between peoples from different social groups. I took these qualities with me into Health Service Management. Health service managers today are attempting to maximise patient care and make services accessible and equitable for all.

My work involves:

.  Managing people: understanding the various cultures of the professions (both clinical and non-clinical), empowering and motivating others, developing staff and being loyal and a servant to the public.

.  Project development: working with clinicians to improve services for patients, involving functional support services such as personnel, finance and contracting, requiring skills in both quantitative and qualitative analysis.

Large organisations have several integrated cultures, and skills learnt through the study of anthropology enhances the management of people to help achieve the organisational vision.

Barbara Campbell, Family Learning Development Co-ordinator,
Stockton-on-Tees

Prior to attending university I had spent sixteen years working as a nurse and had every intention of using an anthropology degree to allow me to return to the Health Service in a different role -- probably teaching student nurses. The main impact of studying anthropology was to broaden my horizons beyond the 'caring professions'. Studying a diverse range of subjects, as well as sharing the experience with students and tutors from many backgrounds, helped me realise how narrow my outlook on life had become.

I have always been interested in education and community issues but prior to attending university I had never taken an active role in groups. Throughout my time as a student my confidence in contributing to discussions and participating in collective contexts increased. I am now a member of the Governing Body of a local school and have become involved in local politics.

As my studies in anthropology developed so did my daughter's interest. At thirteen she now has a much better understanding of a range of subjects that many of her peer group have never encountered.

Since I left university in 1996 I have held two posts -- Research/Project Co-ordinator for the British Red Cross on a community project and Community Development Worker for the Community Action Team, Stockton Borough Council. The latter post entailed working on urban regeneration projects within the most highly disadvantaged areas in Stockton Borough. I had particular responsibility for producing Community Appraisals, documents that chart the needs and aspirations of local residents. These documents are used to support funding bids for community economic development projects, principally from European Regional Development Funds and European Social Funds. My work involved a range of practical skills gained at university, including general writing skills, IT skills, conducting community research (involving questionnaire design, interview techniques, participant observation, presenting research material, group working skills and constructing reports). I have just obtained a new post as a Family Learning Development Co-ordinator that will also require many of these skills.

Eve Hudson and Dawn Downey
Research Associates, Newcastle University

As anthropology graduates we were taken up by Newcastle University to job-share a Research Associate Post. In this job our degrees provided us with a range of transferable skills including: report writing, presentation, evaluation, analysis, IT, organisation and communication. Anthropology 'at home' is an area increasingly in demand.

We are also employed in the field of domestic violence, supporting women and children who suffer abuse. In this capacity the skills outlined feed into our working practice on a daily basis. We develop and deliver training packages for statutory and voluntary organisations. Using the research and IT skills learnt at university we have undertaken a survey to assess what women need in terms of services. On a practical level learning about ethnicity and cultural practices has informed our response when working with ethnic minorities.

On a personal level, the process of working through a stimulating degree course has increased confidence. Anthropology touches on all areas of life in understanding the human condition: health issues, gender, culture, race, ethnicity, disability, the life cycle. Anthropological knowledge gives you a route into many occupations. Having embarked on this journey, there is no going back. Things assume new meaning through fresh eyes. It becomes a way of life -- yours to keep forever.

If you are interested in knowing more about the practical applications of anthropology you might wish to contact the following:

Anthropology in Action (AIA)
Pam Groocock (Administrator)
17 Marlborough Mansions
Cannon Hill
London NW6 1JR

Anthropology in Action provides a UK forum for the discussion of issues relating to the use of anthropology in any area of policy or practice. It also publishes a journal three times per year which contains articles, commentaries and research reports on key issues in applied anthropology.

or

The National Association for the Practice of Anthropology (NAPA)
c/o American Anthropological Association
4350 North Fairfax Drive
Suite 640
Arlington
VA 22203-1621
USA

The National Association for the Practice of Anthropology is a sub-section of the much larger American Anthropological Association. One of NAPA's aims is to establish the practice of anthropology as a profession and to this end the organisation has produced a large amount of informative material on the topic of applied anthropology. For example, see:

Van Willigen, John  1987  Becoming a Practising Anthropologist: A Guide to Careers and Training Programmes in Applied Anthropology, NAPA bulletin 5, Washington DC.

Also, the video, Anthropologists at Work: Careers Making a Difference, produced by Elizabeth Briody for NAPA. Provides a useful overview of the kinds of careers into which anthropologists progress.